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Since the number of discussion posts that I posted is higher than the number of prompts, I figured I could get a pass on this one.

In the beginning of the twentieth century, some South Asians in America claimed to have Caucasian Aryan ancestry that was similar to the ancestry of white Americans. Thus, they believed that they should be American citizens (Puar, 176). However, a common ancestor in ancient times wasn’t enough, as white Americans and South Asians did not resemble each other, and were represented in different ways (Puar, 177). This reminds me of when we discussed Syrians who migrated to America at the end of the nineteenth century. Both Muslim and Christian Syrians considered themselves as white, although they were perceived as foreigners by white Americans. It is only after participating in the Great War that they were able to achieve some form of white status. This also reminds me of Iranians, who were sometimes perceived as white in America, and who have been transformed into ‘‘forever foreigners’’ due to the ways in which they are portrayed by Westerners. Coming back to South Asians, their cultural roles and the racism that they are subjected to disturbs theories about women being the bearers of culture. In fact, Sikh men have the role of safeguarding and transmitting their culture. Moreover, they symbolize the purity of nation which is typically ascribed to women (Puar, 195).
Upon arriving in America, South Asians were sexualized, gendered, and racialized in negative terms (Thangaraj, 374). Furthermore, they were perceived as having an asexual masculinity (Thangaraj, 375). Thus, they sought to adopt a stereotypical Black hyper-masculinity, which often expresses itself through sports (Thangaraj, 377). South Asians would adopt certain African American aesthetics, such as slang and clothing, in order to seem more urban and masculine (Thangaraj, 378). However, doing this caused Blackness to be presented as a monolith, as these representations did not account for the heterogeneity of Blackness (Thangaraj, 383). When we talked about Bengali peddlers at the beginning of the year, we mentioned that Black people would sometimes pretend to be South Asian in order to seem more mystical and exotic in the eyes of white Americans. They did this to be able to sell certain goods, that white people sought to buy from South Asians. I find it interesting that now we are talking about South Asians trying to adopt African American aesthetics in order to seem more masculine and ‘‘cool’’ in the eyes of white people (Thangaraj, 378).

When studying Canadian history, Québec’s past is quite unique in relation to religion. Historically, Québécois people were extremely oppressed by the Catholic Church, which controlled education, healthcare, and entertainment (Mahrouse, 91). The period during the 1940s and 1950s is called ‘‘la Grande Noirceur’’ by Québécois people. During this period, Québécois people felt guilt, loneliness, and anxiety daily. Furthermore, they lacked the freedom to control their lifestyles, as it was mainly monitored by the Catholic Church (The Canadian Encyclopedia). After this period, the Quiet Revolution took place during the 1960s. Society was transforming itself, and the social dynamics were rapidly changing. The Church became weaker, the education system was secularized, and greater gender equality was achieved (Mahrouse, 91). Nowadays, religion as a whole is perceived negatively, especially Islam, which is seen as a threat to gender equality (Mahrouse, 92). On top of that, being a minority group in Canada makes Québécois people feel as if they can’t afford to be too tolerant toward immigrants, as it might cause them to lose their values (Mahrouse, 91). The Bouchard-Taylor commission was formed to respond to different issues between Québécois people and religious/ethnic minorities. However, they stuck to the traditional definition of racism (violation of rights) instead of considering diffuse and discreet racism (Mahrouse, 94). Thus, they were not truly combating racism or intolerance.
In most Western countries, religion is often perceived as contrary to human rights (Bilge, 303). The sexularist stand claims that secularism offers gender equality and sexual emancipation, which religion restricts. Islam specifically, is seen as oppressive toward women and non-heteronormative sexualities. Sexularism can be linked to Orientalism as it perceives Islam as a threat to freedom (Bilge, 307). Historically, Orientalists have always claimed that Islam limits freedom, especially in relation to women. They used this claim as a way of justifying the colonization of the ‘‘Orient’’. Sexularists are against the idea of ‘‘open secularism’’, as it would jeopardize gender equality, and it would be incompatible with feminist concerns (Bilge, 309). By deeming Islam as inherently misogynistic, Québécois people can claim to fight for human rights, all while limiting Muslim people’s freedom (Bilge, 313).

As we talked about in class recently, multiculturalism is an important part of recent Canadian history. Multiculturalism is not only used as a tool to reflect cultural difference, as it’s also a way of constituting difference as the main aspect of Canada’s relations with its internal Others. It can also be used as a way of identifying people from different cultural backgrounds and managing them (Thobani, 145). ‘‘Third world’’ immigration was encouraged in post-war Canada for multiple reasons. Firstly, previous immigration policies that had been based on race became scandalous, as the era of civil rights and decolonization had begun. Furthermore, Canada had a small population and a declining birth rate. Thus, the country was in need of ‘‘third world’’ immigration in order to sustain its economy (Thobani, 146). On top of that, as racialized people were organizing transnational movements, multiculturalism was as a way of getting rid of anti-racist and anti-colonial discourses in Canada (Thobani, 155). White people claimed that they welcomed immigrants, accepted them, and sought to modernize them. However, immigrants held onto their traditions stubbornly. Thus, White people could claim that immigrants were intolerant. This was a way of projecting the anxieties of whiteness onto immigrants. When White people were accused of racism, genocide, and colonialism, they could claim that immigrants were much worse (Thobani, 155).
Das’s text gives insight into Sri Lankan and Indian-Tamil speakers living in Montreal. The part that I found the most interesting in this reading is when the difference between Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil is described. This difference resides in the fact Sri Lankan Tamil is a more classical type of Tamil. In this text, Sri Lankan Tamil is compared to Parisian French and Indian Tamil is compared to Québécois French (Das, 77). I find this interesting because Québécois French is closer to the French that was spoken during the sixteenth century than the French currently spoken in France is. Thus, we could say that Québécois French is closer to classical French. Das also describes the fact that immigrants have different opportunities depending on what type of French they speak. Interestingly, nationalist Québécois people often claim that the main issue in relation to immigration is the protection of the French language. They claim that immigrants don’t learn French, which leads to the loss of Québécois culture through time. However, when immigrants learn a variety of nonstandard Québécois French, it becomes harder for them to have mobility and to access certain jobs. Thus, it is better for them to learn standard Québécois French, or international French, if they want to have more opportunities (Das, 74). However, it is difficult for immigrants to learn standard French if they live in a place where nobody speaks it.

@eman_elawad

Rap initially stands for “rhythm and poetry”. In the 1980s, it was used as a way of depicting harsh realities all while criticizing oppression and violence. Artists like Grandmaster Flash, with his song “The Message”, shed light on the harsh conditions that people lived in. However, rap came to be perceived as a genre of music which promotes crime, drugs and sex. A lot of rappers criticize this, such as J Cole, Kendrick Lamar, etc. And there are also rappers who use Gangsta Rap (like NWA) to depict their reality. Sometimes, it seems as if they are glorifying crime. However, Ice Cube, a member of NWA, claimed that when he mentions violence in his songs he is only doing that to paint a picture and to illustrate the reality that many people live in. Ice Cube even compares his music to journalism. Sadly, although there are lots of rappers who make conscious music, many mainstream rappers (like Gunna, Future, Young Thug, Drake, etc) glorify sex, crime and the consumption of drugs without actually criticizing oppression. These rappers also say horrendous things about women, depicting them merely as sexual objects. This causes people to view rap music as something that promotes crime and violence.

This is what I meant when I said that rappers depict themselves as criminals. I did not want to claim that rap music as a whole is criminal. I was only stating that many mainstream rappers claim to be criminals, even when they aren’t. In some way, these specific artists are glorifying violence.

Baldwin describes French people as menacing, snide, and condescending toward Algerians. He claims that the increasing hatred toward Algerian people is related to the fact that Algeria became independent and is no longer French (Baldwin, 3). He also states that Algerians are treated like dirt by French people. Algerians in Paris live in miserable conditions. They must share rooms, as they can’t afford to live alone, since they have a hard time finding work. However, these Algerians have a homeland that they can go back to, unlike Black Americans, who have no home country other than America (Baldwin, 2). Baldwin claims that French people perceive Black Americans as civilized, unlike Arabs. Although Algeria was colonized for 130 years, Algerians held onto their culture, their languages, and their religious beliefs (Baldwin, 4). Black Americans may be perceived as civilized by French people because they lost their original languages, traditions, and religious beliefs (whether they were Muslim or Pagan). Thus, French people perceive African Americans as civilized because they were westernized.
Due to increasing racism and Islamophobia in Europe, many North Africans immigrated to Montreal. They came to Montreal to avoid racism and get rid of the constant burden that they felt in Europe (Mandin, 305). For these immigrants, coming to Montreal is experienced as an opening of new hopes, although the results do not always align with people’s aspirations (Mandin, 300). In Europe, they felt as if they were stuck in miserable living conditions, with no way of making it out (Mandin, 303). In Montreal they feel as if they are not judged because of their ethnic or religious background. They also feel that their identity is recognized and respected (Mandin, 306). However, over the years Quebec is becoming more racist and Islamophobic. Furthermore, the country is creating Bills that directly affect Muslim people (Bill 21). One of Mandin’s interviewees sees this as Quebec becoming a French province again (Mandin, 309). In a sense, these immigrants left Europe, searching for a better life. Montreal was a place in which they could find refuge, but Quebec is slowly becoming like Europe. Ultimately, the Maghrebi experience in Montreal is characterized by renewed possibilities mixed with persisting discrimination (Mandin, 310).
In his song, MC Solaar presents himself as an educated young man who spent his youth reading books at the library. This is unusual in rap, as a lot of rappers depict themselves as criminals. Furthermore, rappers often talk about not appreciating school during their childhood. MC Solaar also claims to be a pacifist and even compares himself to Gandhi. This is interesting because later he states that when dealing with racism in Paris, you can’t ask for help. You just have to accept it. Maybe his passivity is not a personal choice, but rather something that was forced onto him. In comparison, many rappers of his time, like the group NTM or IAM, would oppose themselves to racism and inequality. However, they would sometimes use discourse that would make them be perceived as dangerous (NTM specifically). In the song, MC Solaar’s character seems Muslim, as he presents himself as educated and calm. He also states that he uses his knowledge in order to fight oppression instead of using violence.

Multiculturalism was becoming more important in Canada in the 1970s (Muhammedi, 81). Trudeau wanted to reduce prejudice by excepting multiculturalism as a part of Canadian culture (Muhammedi, 82). The country was welcoming people from the whole world. The main sources of immigrants were Hong Kong, the Philippines, Jamaica, Trinidad, and India (Muhammedi, 79). Most of them spoke English since they had been colonized by either the British or the Americans. This shows that Canada wanted to welcome people who spoke English and who had already had some sort of contact with western culture. Initially, some Canadian people were against the arrival of Ugandan Asians due to rising unemployment and federal politics (Muhammedi, 83). They were scared that Ugandan Asians would take their jobs. However, other people highlighted the fact that it would be very hard for Ugandan Asians to find work because of the lack of recognition of foreign credentials or work experience (Muhammedi, 84). Eventually, opinions changed, as Canadians wanted to demonstrate compassion for the victims of the situation in Uganda (Muhammedi, 86). Officially, they were not considered as refugees, but rather as an oppressed minority. This was because they would be citizens of other countries and could legally go to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Britain (Muhammedi, 92). The Aga Khan, who was a friend of Trudeau insisted that Canada provide a refuge for the Ugandan expellees (Muhammedi, 94). This influenced Trudeau’s acceptance of the Ugandan Asians.
Historically, American citizenship was based on whiteness (Maghbouleh, 17). Throughout American history, Iranians were considered as white, or non-white, depending on the period. Initially, they were perceived as white (Maghbouleh, 18). Eventually, they were no longer perceived as white because they were Muslim (Maghbouleh, 19). Due to the Iranian revolution and the hostage crisis, they came to be perceived as tyrannical and dangerous. Racist and prejudiced perceptions of Iranians were promoted, especially in Hollywood (Maghbouleh, 21). Many Americans protested as they wanted Iranians to be deported (Maghbouleh, 27). A couple of decades later, 9/11 enhanced this racism, although it was not the first time that Iranians dealt with discrimination (Maghbouleh, 30). Today, they are citizens and have legal whiteness. However, they have been transformed into “forever foreigners”, as they continue to be victims of discrimination, all while being portrayed as terrorist threats (Maghbouleh, 37).
In the song ‘‘Fortress Europe’’, the members of group Asian Dub Foundation promote active resistance, as they did in their song ‘‘TH9’’, which we talked about a couple of classes ago. They say: “Keep banging on the wall of Fortress Europe”. Essentially, they are encouraging people to fight European oppression. By comparing Europe to a fortress, they are illustrating the fact that Europeans do not want to welcome people who are seeking better living conditions. They also say that “safe European homes [were] built on wars’’. Then, they add: ‘‘You don’t like the effect, don’t produce the cause”. Ultimately, they are claiming that Europeans have caused the misery of other people, which they are now being affected by as these people are migrating to Europe. Furthermore, they are stating that European powers are only rich due to the poverty that they have brought to other nations.

When the Ottoman Empire began losing its power, there were certain Syrians migrating out of their homeland. Early sources claimed that these migrations were due to the civil war which made Christian Syrians feel unsafe. Violence did in fact lead to migration. However, economic and political changes in the wake of the conflict are what truly led to long periods of migration (Gualtieri, 26). In America, Syrians would sell crosses and holy water from the ‘‘Holy Land’’. This was a way for them to make money, since Americans were intrigued by these immigrants who seemed foreign and exotic to them (Gualtieri, 33). This reminds of when we talked about South Asians who would sell their goods to Westerners. Due to Orientalism, Americans wanted to purchase goods from people that seemed exotic to them. Although many Syrians migrated to America willingly, they still suffered from melancholia and had a hard time adapting to their new environment. They had to learn a new language and get used to new foods, smells and people. Furthermore, they didn’t know where to situate themselves in relation to racial dynamics, which were important in America to determine social class. Nonetheless, they were pleased to meet other people who spoke Arabic, and who could provide them with information about where to sleep, eat, and work (Gualtieri, 51).
Syrians in America were initially perceived as outsiders who were a danger to White Christians (Curtis IV, 90). They attempted to be accepted by White people, by insisting that they were different to Muslim Syrians. They claimed that they were White, and that Muslims were not (Curtis IV, 91). They even considered that Muslims were barbaric (Curtis IV, 92). Nonetheless, Syrian Muslims defended what they believed to be their whiteness, which led to disagreements between Christian and Muslim Syrians. In fact, there were disputes between these two groups surrounding racial, religious and political matters which could cause violence and even lead to people dying (Curtis IV, 91). Although both Christian and Muslim Syrians were initially perceived as foreigners by the American people, their status was upgraded through time. In fact, their participation in the First World War advanced their social status, and they came to be perceived as White Americans (Curtis IV, 102). This illustrates the fact that race is an extremely complicated concept, and that people can be racialized differently through time. A person who is perceived as non-white during a specific period can ‘‘become’’ white through time. I was wondering if the opposite could happen. Can a person who is considered white become foreign or non-white due to a change in social, cultural or political dynamics?

At the end of the nineteenth century, there was an increase in English men converting to Islam (Gilham, 96). Many of those men were middle aged Christians (Gilham, 98). Most converts were working-class people (Gilham, 101). Not many women were converting to Islam, as they had less access to the social networks that led to discussion about Islam and conversion (Gilham, 99). Converting to Islam was difficult depending on individual circumstances. However, for many reasons, English Christians were still converting to Islam. One might think this is due to coercion. However, it was a personal choice. One of the reasons for which people were converting to Islam was the brotherhood that was present between Muslim men (Gilham, 102). Furthermore, they didn’t understand certain Christian concepts, such as the Trinity. ‘‘How could God be one and three at the same time?’’ Some of them considered that this felt like a Pagan belief (Gilham, 105). Furthermore, the Quran and Sunnah gave them rule and order, all while offering them a rational and simple social code. It also allowed them to distance themselves from poisons like drinking, gambling and usury (Gilham, 106). I personally relate to this, as my mother is Orthodox Christian. When I was a child, she would sometimes take me to church or send me to a Bible study camp during the summer. I was never able to understand Christianity. For me, it was impossible to believe that God was one entity, all while being three different persons. It was also impossible for me to believe that God was a man, with a date of birth and a death. Interestingly, my brother, my sister and I all ended up choosing Islam, without it being forced onto us. We all choose Islam instead of Christianity for similar reasons.
Markers of Islam, such as the hijab, certain clothes, or beards can lead White Muslims to lose their whiteness. Their whiteness becomes compromised or complicated because they are Muslim, which makes them seem foreign (Husain, 593). In fact, being Muslim and expressing it through your appearance can make people think that you are Middle Eastern (Husain, 597). This also applies to Black Muslims, who are perceived as being ‘‘more Muslim than Black’’. Having a beard or wearing a kufi can make a Black man lose his blackness. However, they still grow their beards and wear certain clothes because they want to be recognized as Muslims (Husain, 595). This text shows that being Muslim can make you feel alienated from your own culture. However, people don’t abandon Islam because their faith is more important than their culture. Furthermore, the bond a Muslim has with another Muslim is stronger than cultural bonds.
In his song, Brother Ali mentions slavery, genocides, and war. He also mentions that Americans kill Brown people daily. He also claims that people are still slaves, although they are no loner in chains. This is similar to Malcolm X, who claimed that Black people were prisoners of their own minds due to the White man’s poisons. Brother Ali then states that America is a country in which ‘‘the dollar is sacred, and the power is God’’. Essentially, he is claiming that Americans worship money. He is also claiming that they use Christianity as a way of justifying their crimes against humanity. Finally, he says that America shoots people down if they get to close to the throne. This symbolizes the fact that the government wants to keep people down and oppressed, not empowered or free.

Throughout the 1990s, English right-wing parties were extremely racist and intolerant. They claimed that they wanted to fight rising crime (Hutnyk, 51). This was simply an excuse to attack racialized people. These politicians were essentialist, seeing all different marginalized people as a monolith. Thus, when a crime was committed by a racialized person, their entire community was perceived as being a criminal threat. The only way of getting rid of this ‘‘rising criminal threat’’ was to bring order. This order was expressed by police officers violently beating racialized people, whose only crime was existing. Evidently, this was also a problem in France, America, Canada, and other Western countries. Some people claim that criminal acts and terrorist attacks have enhanced racism and islamophobia. I believe that racist people exist, with or without ‘‘rising crime’’. However, crime is a way for racists of justifying their intolerance and being ‘‘allowed’’ to express it. Many left-wing people organized protests and demonstrations as a way of opposing this rising racism in England (Hutnyk, 52).
Conservatives have often perceived cultural diversity as a threat to national cohesion and security, whether in England or other Western countries. Since 9/11, liberals have also been increasingly critical of immigration and multiculturalism (Kundnani, 122). Eventually, a new sense of ‘‘community cohesion’’ was introduced, which encouraged integration and assimilation instead of multiculturalism (Kundnani, 124). Essentially, immigrants had to abandon their culture in order to be perceived as ‘‘good Englishmen’’. This racism was clearly essentialist, as it put all Brown people in the same category. In fact, all South Asians were victims of Islamophobia, whether they were Muslim or not (Kundnani, 127). Labour politicians such as David Blunkett claimed that fighting racism, by introducing anti-racist education, would lead to less importance being given to the English culture and values (Kundnani, 131). Interestingly, this shows that racism is an inherent part of British culture, as fighting it would ‘‘negatively affect’’ that culture. It also illustrates the fact that some Westerners believe that racism shouldn’t be fought, but rather endured. In Canada, people encourage multiculturalism and tolerance. They claim that immigrants should be welcomed, and that some parts of their culture may even be integrated into Canadian culture. Obviously, this is a façade. In Québec, politicians encourage integration and assimilation. They want immigrants to abandon their values, traditions, and religious beliefs. Ultimately, they want them to become Québécois.
In the song ‘‘TH9’’, the police are described as violent, and as always looking for a fight. The artists say that it is time to fight back, instead of complying. They also say that police need to be held accountable for their actions. Unlike the Gandhian movement, which encouraged passive and peaceful resistance, the song encourages active and physical resistance. The artists claim that there should not be peace until justice is reached. Although in this specific case, it is a generational difference, this difference between peaceful and active resistance can also be seen in members of a same generation. In fact, this is the case of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr., who were completely different in their approach. Malcolm X claimed that violence had to be used in order to fight injustice, whereas Martin Luther King Jr. claimed that peaceful protests were the best way of fighting inequalities.

I completely agree with you. The NOI and the MST were extremely far from the teachings of Islam, all while falsely claiming some sort of religious, racial, and moral superiority. On top of their racist and separatist views, their teachings were blasphemous and went against the fundamental beliefs of Islam. Not only did certain men claim to be prophets of Islam, and messengers of God, but they were also worshipped by the members of their organizations. For example, many people began worshipping Elijah Muhammad, and adoring him. This is clearly Shirk, which is the most serious sin one can commit in Islam. As you justly say in your concluding paragraph, these movements can be seen as completely separate from Islam. I am glad that people such as Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali left these organizations, and actually started practicing Islam.

Moorish history began in the 1910s in New Jersey, and reached Chicago in 1925 (Curtis IV, 47). Noble Drew Ali founded Moorish Science and published the Holy Koran of the Moorish Science Temple (Curtis IV, 48). The movement was inspired by Islamic movements of resistance against European powers (Curtis IV, 50). Members of the movement would synthesize and rewrite many parts of ancient history surround Islam as a way of claiming that African Americans were descendants of ancient Asiatic people who were Muslim (Curtis IV, 54). I do not completely believe that this is cultural appropriation, as many African Americans were indeed Muslim before being stolen from the native land of West Africa. However, I do believe that it is problematic when American people claim that their ancestors built the pyramids in Egypt or Sudan, as they have no proof to back these claims, and they are somewhat claiming other people’s history. Noble Drew Ali believed that White people were guilty of the harsh living conditions in Black communities. He claimed that the White man took Black people’s identities away. Moreover, he believed that White people stripped Black people of their nationality and heritage (Curtis IV, 55).
These views are similar to the ones Malcolm X had, before he left the Nation of Islam. In fact, members of the Nation of Islam believed that all White men were devils. They also believed that the White man’s actions were the cause of the suffering of Black people (Malcolm X, 159). In order to describe all the systems put in place to keep Black people in the same conditions, Malcolm X uses the term ‘‘White man’s poison’’. He was motivated to become a Muslim, as it was of way of freeing himself from these many poisons, such as pork, alcohol, cigarettes and drugs (Malcolm X, 161). Furthermore, he considered that Islam was a way of revealing the true knowledge that the Black man possessed (Malcolm X, 162). I also believe that there was an appetite for Islam among African Americans, as Christianity was often used as a way of pacifying them and making them submissive and obedient to the White man. In public speeches, Malcolm referred to these submissive Black people as ‘‘house slaves’’.
The song ‘‘The Spark’’ by the rap group Roots mentions Islam directly. The artist rapping, Malik B, calls himself Abdul Malik, meaning servant of the King, King being one of God’s names mentioned in the Quran. Thus, he is saying that God is his master and his King, and that no man is above him. He also mentions giving Dawah, which I believe means preaching, or inviting people to Islam. He mentions the pillars of Islam, such as prayer, fasting, charity, and the Holy pilgrimage. He also mentions du’as, which are prayers in which one makes requests or invocations, asking for guidance, mercy, provision, and many more things that God can give us. Finally, Malik B mentions Tawaf, which is when pilgrims walk circularly around the Ka’aba during the pilgrimage.
The two readings mentioned above, as well as the song, illustrate the importance of Islam, specifically in relation to the liberation of Black people from the White man’s shackles. Islam allowed Black people to create an identity separate from the one that was forced onto them by the White man, who were once their slave masters. Thus, through Islam, Black people claim that only God is their master, and that they will not submit themselves to men. What I find particularly interesting is that these movements were initially racist and separatist, whereas Islam prohibits racism. In fact, it is said in the Quran that God created us and made us into different peoples and tribes so that we may get to know one another (Surah 49, verse 13). Thus, there is no place for segregation or separatism in Islam. That is why many members of the Nation of Islam ended up leaving it and embracing true Islam, which is the case of Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali.

Since the second half of the twentieth century, Indian cuisine has become increasingly popular in British culture and social life. Today, there are approximately nine thousand restaurants and take-aways run by South Asian immigrants and their descendants. Most of their customers are White people (Buettner, 143). Buettner explains this increasing taste for so-called Indian food by using the term ‘‘celebratory multiculturalism’’. However, this multiculturalism still came with a form of racism and exclusion (Buettner, 145). Indian restaurants and take-aways were ‘‘damned and praised simultaneously’’ (Buettner 159). Some clients considered that the food was good, all while being cheap. Others considered that these restaurants were disappointing, and that the food lacked flavor. Some described these restaurants as nice places to grab food after hitting the pub (Buettner, 158). Many of these restaurants were criticized for having the same designs and the same menus, thus, lacking authenticity (Buettner, 156). They could even be depicted as ‘‘second-class establishments’’ (Buettner, 157). Some White people have considered rebranding the food, modernizing it, and attracting new clientele (Buettner, 168). Personally, I consider this to be not only cultural appropriation, but also a strange form of colonialism. It’s as if Westerners want to colonize food in order to make financial profits.
Food can also be linked to nostalgia, thus, to a form of melancholia. Cooking can be a way of recreating immigrant people’s home countries. It can also be a way of recreating the past in their present lives. In order to make authentic food, which is different from the rest, one must recreate their own homes. However, the nostalgia one feels in relation to their home country leads to the creation of things that ‘‘never were’’ (Mannur, 32). This means that the person who is recreating their home, is only recreating a perspective, and not a reality.
The music video overall presents how food links us to our families, our parents and grandparents. In the music video, the moment I find the most interesting is when we see Jaffrey in a boxing gym, wearing boxing gloves and a championship belt. I think this symbolizes the fact that we all consider our grandmothers as the best chefs. I can eat couscous anywhere in the world, but in will never be better than the one my grandmother made that one time when I was nine years old. Was she truly the best chef? Was that really the best couscous I ever ate? Or am I just nostalgic of my childhood, and of being able to spend time with my grandmother?
I believe that food is important for diaspora histories, as it not only allows people to keep a part of their culture, but it also allows them to interact with other people. In fact, food is a way of sharing your culture with people of other diasporas. It’s also a way of interacting with White people, who can claim your food as a new part of their culture, all while describing it as disgusting, greasy or stinky. Food can bring you back to your childhood, your home country, your family. You can also start being ashamed of the food you once loved because of the way it’s perceived by White people.

Many of the Punjabi immigrants arriving in Canada in the beginning of the twentieth century stayed in British Columbia (Ward, 79). These immigrants faced many challenges. They only had access to low paying jobs and intermittent employment. In addition, they were paid much lower wages than the White people that they worked with. They mainly had impersonal relationships with the White people they interacted with (Ward, 81). In relation to work, many employers considered them as unsatisfactory workers, hiring them only because of a labour shortage (Ward, 85). Most White British Columbians objected pluralism, which was indicated by their Sinophobia. The racist assumptions they had toward Indian people were deeply linked to their racism toward Chinese and Japanese people. Just as racist perceptions of Chinese people existed before their arrival in Canada, negative assumptions about Indians also preceded their arrival (Ward, 82). Both groups were described as unable to assimilate to Canadian culture (Ward, 90). However, Protestant churches and social reform organizations occasionally defended Indians. They would complain about the fact that their wives and children were not allowed to come to Canada. Some prominent Indians were even able to actively promote their cause among White Canadians. However, the White people who sided with Indians were a minority. Most of the British Columbians remained deeply racist (Ward, 85). In response to the objection of pluralism, the government began restricting and discouraging the arrival of new Indians. In relation to Indians already living in British Columbia, the government encouraged them to leave and return to India (Ward, 86). On May 23rd, 1914, Gurdit Singh, a wealthy Sikh merchant and contractor from Hong Kong, arrived on the Komagata Maru with 376 prospective Indian immigrants. There are three possible reasons for his arrival. He may have considered that the immigration restrictions were an offense to Indians, and wished to break them down by forcing their entry into the country. As an Indian nationalist, he may have also hoped to instigate unrest in India if their entry was prevented. Finally, the most likely reason for his trip is that he stood to gain financial profits if the enterprise was successful, and the immigrants were permitted to enter the country (Ward, 88). This incident prompted even more racist outbursts toward Indian people in British Columbia (Ward, 90).
In California, Punjabi immigrants could live among White people or Mexicans who had fled Mexico during the revolution (Leonard, 64). It was perceived negatively for them to marry White women (Leonard, 62). Thus, they would marry Mexicans (Leonard, 63). Marriages with Black women were discouraged in Punjabi communities, as they did not want to ally themselves with people who were hated by the Whites (Leonard, 69). It was quite common for people of different religious backgrounds to marry. There are many recorded instances of Sikhs and Muslims getting married (Leonard, 68). Thus, one can assume that the issue of caste was not as important as it was in the subcontinent.
It was important for colonial regimes to enforce marital norms, in order to differentiate non-White people, such as Indians, freed slaves, and polygamous Mormons (perceived as non-white), from the White majority (Shah, 117). It was also seen as a way of recognizing people who were depicted as a threat to Western civilization (Shah, 119). Finally, it allowed the government to regulate relations of the people under its rule (Shah, 118). Ultimately, it was a way of imposing authority. There were instances of non-normative marital relationships. An example of this is presented in the story of two women claiming to be married to a man who had passed away. One of them was from New Mexico, and the other was from India (Shah, 120). Using ‘‘expert knowledge’’, the attorneys of Soledad Garcia Jubala, the wife from New Mexico, claimed that Hindu marriage was immoral and uncivilized. Thus, the man’s marriage with his Indian wife was to be seen as illegitimate, meaning that Soledad Garcia Jubala was his ‘‘true’’ wife (Shah, 121). Similarly, while defending Don Sing in a case of sodomy, P.L. Verma claimed that sodomy was a terrible sin according to Hindu morals. Thus, no good Hindu would commit such a sin (Shah, 127). Using this ‘‘knowledge’’ allowed her to win the case, meaning Don Sing was acquitted. Verma also attracted compassion and sympathy by presenting his wife as hopeless and miserable in relation to the whole situation (Shah, 128). By claiming to know Indian culture and the Hindu religion, lawyers were able to win court cases for or against Indians.

During the 1880s, Bengali peddlers started making frequent voyages to the United States (Bald, 12). However, the federal government took over the processing and evaluation of arriving immigrants, which was something previously done by individual states. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Alien Contract Labor Law of 1885, combined with racist assumptions, made it extremely difficult for Bengali peddlers to cross into the United States (Bald, 14). Nonetheless, Bengali Muslims started travelling in smaller groups, trying different ports, reuniting with kin and co-villagers, and establishing networks in order to come to the East Coast of the United States. As Orientalism was becoming important in the United States, the American people saw a growing fashion for exotic ideas, entertainments and goods coming from India (Bald, 15). In fact, India was becoming a collective fantasy (Bald, 16). Circuses and exhibitions had Indian elephants and camels (Bald, 17). South Asians were able to sell their goods to Americans (Bald, 22). However, ideas about India became tainted by mass-entertainment and consumption. Furthermore, Westerners began fetishizing Indian women (Bald, 18). There was also a growing anti-immigrant and anti-Asian sentiment in America (Bald, 39). This did not stop South Asians from settling in American cities. For example, New Orleans was becoming one of the most important hubs of travel and transport, as it was connected to every major city in the North and South (Bald, 24). Peddlers were regularly settling there (Bald, 25). In fact, the U.S. Census recorded a fivefold increase in the number of Indian peddlers living in New Orleans between 1900 and 1910 (Bald, 32).
New York City, specifically East Harlem, was also an important setting for Indians. In fact, increasing numbers of Indians were settling in East Harlem (Bald, 161). Before that, Harlem was the epicenter of the African American world. It was seen as a promised land, where people from Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, and Cuba would settle. The population was submitted to segregation and lived in poor health and housing conditions. They also had extremely limited educational opportunities (Bald, 162). The Indians settling on the east coast contracted marriages with African American, Caribbean and Latin American women. The initial reason is that they lived in the same neighborhoods and mainly worked with other racialized people (Bald, 163). According to New York’s police commissioner, they were trying to disappear into the communities around them, to pass, or to gain new legal identities as Puerto Ricans (Bald, 166). This argument is not entirely true, as many Indians kept expressing their culture through the sale of goods, and through the making of foods. Many of them worked in restaurants (Bald, 172). They served Indian food to the Caribbean population and to African Americans (Bald, 178). Food was not only a way for them to make money and interact with other people in New York, but it was also a way of keeping a sense of community with other Indians (Bald, 173). Other than food and the sale of goods, institutions like the Indian Seamen’s Club and the Bengal Garden were important spaces for the consolidation of the New York’s Bengali Muslim community. Meetings and events were organized, where connections were built, leading to the creation of communities (Bald, 183). Eventually, there was a separation between nations and religions (Hindu vs Muslim, Indian vs Pakistani), as well as a division of classes. This was happening at the same time as the sectarian violence of Partition taking place in the subcontinent (Bald, 184). I wonder how this separation affected the ways in which South Asians were perceived in America. Bald mentions that the India League was perceived as being elite, in comparison to the Pakistan League (Bald, 185). Did these separations affect political opinions of Westerners toward different South Asians? Did these separations create distinctions between women who were married to Indian men in contrast to those married to Pakistani men? Finally, as violence between sects and nations was rising in the subcontinent, was this violence also seen in America?

In the beginning of the twentieth century, in Australia, Afghan Muslims would allegedly buy and sell their wives (Khatun, 143). They were depicted as being barbaric toward their wives, not allowing them basic human rights (Khatun, 144). Samia Khatun counters this narrative by stating that marriage did not transform women into property (Khatun, 149). She also cites stories in which women had power during the negotiations taking place while the marriage was being prepared (Khatun, 150). In 1901, six separated British colonies became ‘‘White Australia’’, a state that was independent from British rule. The goal was mainly to restrict commerce and importations coming from South Asia. This state restricted movement of Asian merchants. It also restricted the movement of Asian workers and their capital (Khatun, 152). Racialist discourses did not only govern commerce, but they also governed the marriage of Aboriginal women. In fact, the ‘‘White Australian’’ government sought to control Aboriginal people’s intimate relations. Aboriginal children whose fathers were not Aboriginal were considered as ‘‘half-caste’’. ‘‘Half-caste’’ women were systematically forced to marry White men, in order to have White children. Ultimately, the goal was to make people forget about the Aboriginal identity in Australia (Khatun, 158). Thus, it was illegal for ‘‘half-caste’’ women to have relationships with racialized men, which was the case of Lallie Matbar and Akbar Khan (Khatun, 159). From a racialist point of view, Aboriginal women could acquire the privilege of being white, through marriage with White men. ‘‘White Australia’’ would be turning Aboriginals into White Australians. Using the same logic, what did White men gain from these marriages?
In his book Antiman, Rajiv Mohabir describes the melancholia he felt, in relation to his Indo-Guyanese roots. Rajiv illustrates the different ways by which he attempted to reclaim his lost culture. He describes wanting to learn Hindi. He also mentions that learning about Guyanese and Indian traditions could help him learn where he comes from (Mohabir, 19). He also mentions wanting to learn about the Bhojpuri language, folk singing, and astrology (Mohabir, 23). However, he faced many challenges. For example, his father would encourage him to learn a ‘‘useful’’ language instead of Hindi (Mohabir, 19). This shows that his father somewhat rejected his original culture. Similarly, he claims that his father did not want him to ‘‘become Hindu’’ (Mohabir, 20). Moreover, Rajiv was shocked when he noticed that White people were more interested in Indian culture than his own family members. He claims that the grandchildren of the people who told Indians that their culture was backward were the ones studying it (Mohabir, 38). In relation to learning standardised Hindi, he mentions that although he spoke it quite fluently, he was forced to take beginner level classes because he could not write properly. He gives the example of mixing up long and short vowels in writing (Mohabir, 29).
In relation to loss of culture, which I personally think is the biggest cause of migrant melancholia, it is interesting to note that governments were the first entities to try to kill people’s cultures. They even used laws to attempt to make Indigenous people across the world ‘‘disappear’’. However, through time, racialized people have also tried erasing their own culture, within themselves. Rajiv Mohabir’s father is a good example of this. Why do certain parents feel disdain toward their own cultures? Why do they encourage their children to abandon their practices, languages, and values?

In their song ‘‘Debris’’, the group Asian Dub Foundation mentions being destroyed and conquered by imperial forces. They also state that their underdevelopment was caused by colonial injustices, that they refer to as ‘‘abuse’’. The name of the song represents the fact that nations have been torn by colonialism, which continues to affect them up until the present day. Furthermore, the song emphasizes the fact that colonialism led Westerns states to be ‘‘developed’’, while causing ‘‘underdevelopment’’ in colonized countries.
According to Visram, British people would bring racialized people to the United Kingdom because they did not want to leave behind a favorite, faithful servant. They also wanted to recreate the nostalgic splendor of Indian life in England. Furthermore, they needed people to take care of their children (Visram, 12). Finally, Indian servants were cheaper and more reliable than European ones (Visram, 13). Although they were technically free men and women, there were many instances of cruel treatment toward Indian servants (Visram, 15). Many of them who could not endure this mistreatment ran away from the families they worked for (Visram, 16). In some instances, contracts were not respected, which left Indian people stranded in England with no way to back to India (Visram, 21-22). As mentioned earlier, these servants were technically free men and women. However, they were treated as chattel. They were brought to England entirely for the convenience of their masters. They had no security. Most of the time, they did not have a contract of employment (Visram, 16). Once they had arrived in England, they were often discharged and left to fend for themselves (Visram, 17). There are even examples of Indian people begging in the streets, as they had no other way to acquire money (Visram, 18).
Gilliat-Ray and Mellor describe anti-Arab racism and Islamophobia in twentieth-century England, specifically toward Yemenis, Somalis and Arabs (Gilliat-Ray and Mellor, 456). They mention that many Muslims adopted European lifestyle and deviated from their traditional cultures (Gilliat-Ray and Mellor, 457). However, they were still victims of racism and Islamophobia. This kind of hatred is different to modern racism/Islamophobia, as nowadays people who Westernize themselves and abandon their original cultures are seen as ‘‘model minorities’’. The people who hold onto their religion and traditions are the ones who are perceived as problematic. On top of the racism that Muslim immigrants were facing, there were also rivalries between Yemenis and Somalis, specifically in relation to mosque-building projects. This created tensions and disputes between different groups (Gilliat-Ray and Mellor, 461). Although Muslim immigrants faced discrimination, as mentioned earlier, certain White women would interact with them, or even marry them. Most of them belonged to lower social classes. Due to their relationships with Muslim men, they were estranged from their parents. Through their marriages, they had greater autonomy and responsibility in their daily lives and household management, because their husbands were often away for long periods of time due to their jobs (Gilliat-Ray and Mellor, 468). However, these marriages were also beneficial for Muslim men, as their wives would act as interlocutors in relation to institutions such as housing, offices, the Labour Exchange, or the Shipping Federation. Thus, they could secure opportunities for their husbands (Gilliat-Ray and Mellor, 470).

''They claimed that Islam was semi-civilized. Thus, they claimed that Africans were not uncivilized, but that Islam is what brought them to be (GhaneaBassiri, 49)''. I just realized I wrote the opposite of what I meant to write. Muslim Africans were seen as superior to pagan Africans since Islam brought them to be semi-civilized. I apologize for that mistake.

Many of the slaves brought from West Africa to America were Muslim. Although they were often forced to convert to Christianity, many of them were sure of their faith and intended to keep it. They knew their religion, and at the very least had read the Quran. Even when they were forcibly converted to Christianity, they did not embrace the new religion (Diouf, 74). Non-Muslims, on the other hand, could incorporate whatever seemed useful in Christianity into their original beliefs (Diouf, 75). ‘‘Pseudo-converts’’ adopted outward signs of Christianity, all while retaining their faith (Diouf, 78). Their original faith could be seen through their practices, such as praying, fasting, or giving alms to each other. Although prayer is not mandatory if it puts the believer in danger, many slaves prayed by choice (Diouf, 86). Zakat and Sadaqah (alms and charity) were also important as they instilled a sense of collective identity and responsibility, by making it a duty to participate in the welfare of the community. Alms giving between slaves was recorded in many different places such as Brazil, the West Indies, and the United States of America (Diouf, 92). Shahada (profession of faith) did not put them in danger as much as visible practices, as they could testify their faith in front of God without being attacked by their slaveowners. In fact, shahada was an inward practice, unlike prayer, alms giving, and fasting. Finally, instead of calling these slaves ‘‘pseudo-converts’’, I think we can call them forced-converts, which emphasizes the fact that conversions were achieved through harsh punishments (Diouf, 76).
Slavery was used as an excuse to Christianise African people. The children of slaves would become Christian and have more European attributes due to their contact with White people (GhaneaBassiri, 48). Even opponents of slavery had deeply racist and paternalistic perspectives. They claimed that Islam was semi-civilized. Thus, they claimed that Africans were not uncivilized, but that Islam is what brought them to be (GhaneaBassiri, 49). However, some White people used Muslim slaves as examples of intelligence and good character (GhaneaBassiri, 50). They claimed that Arabic speaking Africans were superior in culture and civilization in contrast to surrounding peoples (GhaneaBassiri, 52). This illustrates the Orientalist biases that White people applied in their representations of Africans, as they considered that people with an Abrahamic religion, similar to Christianity, were superior to pagan Africans.
An example of a Muslim slave was Omar Ibn Said, who was very explicit about his faith. In his autobiography, the earliest pages of the manuscript contain quotations from the Quran which he remembered (Said, 87). Although these quotations are not autobiographical, they illustrate how devoted he was to his faith, even years after being stolen from his land. In his autobiography, he states that he studied and sought religious knowledge under the instruction of a Sheikh. He claims that he studied for twenty-five years (Said, 89). Interestingly, this contradicts the narrative that Africans were uncivilized and uneducated, as Said was educated, literate, and knowledgeable in religious matters.

I really liked reading your discussion post. As you say, ''looking Muslim'' has become a crime. I appreciate how you linked the situation of the Moriscos in Latin America to the state of Uighurs in China. This reminded me of the example of France, in which a ban on the niqab and burqa in public spaces was imposed in 2010. Ever since, Muslim women who wear one of these religious coverings have been punished for it unjustly. Similarly, the abaya and the qamis are both banned in French schools. Thus, the French government is punishing people for practicing their religion, or expressing their culture.