South Asians on the West Coast
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Many of the Punjabi immigrants arriving in Canada in the beginning of the twentieth century stayed in British Columbia (Ward, 79). These immigrants faced many challenges. They only had access to low paying jobs and intermittent employment. In addition, they were paid much lower wages than the White people that they worked with. They mainly had impersonal relationships with the White people they interacted with (Ward, 81). In relation to work, many employers considered them as unsatisfactory workers, hiring them only because of a labour shortage (Ward, 85). Most White British Columbians objected pluralism, which was indicated by their Sinophobia. The racist assumptions they had toward Indian people were deeply linked to their racism toward Chinese and Japanese people. Just as racist perceptions of Chinese people existed before their arrival in Canada, negative assumptions about Indians also preceded their arrival (Ward, 82). Both groups were described as unable to assimilate to Canadian culture (Ward, 90). However, Protestant churches and social reform organizations occasionally defended Indians. They would complain about the fact that their wives and children were not allowed to come to Canada. Some prominent Indians were even able to actively promote their cause among White Canadians. However, the White people who sided with Indians were a minority. Most of the British Columbians remained deeply racist (Ward, 85). In response to the objection of pluralism, the government began restricting and discouraging the arrival of new Indians. In relation to Indians already living in British Columbia, the government encouraged them to leave and return to India (Ward, 86). On May 23rd, 1914, Gurdit Singh, a wealthy Sikh merchant and contractor from Hong Kong, arrived on the Komagata Maru with 376 prospective Indian immigrants. There are three possible reasons for his arrival. He may have considered that the immigration restrictions were an offense to Indians, and wished to break them down by forcing their entry into the country. As an Indian nationalist, he may have also hoped to instigate unrest in India if their entry was prevented. Finally, the most likely reason for his trip is that he stood to gain financial profits if the enterprise was successful, and the immigrants were permitted to enter the country (Ward, 88). This incident prompted even more racist outbursts toward Indian people in British Columbia (Ward, 90).
In California, Punjabi immigrants could live among White people or Mexicans who had fled Mexico during the revolution (Leonard, 64). It was perceived negatively for them to marry White women (Leonard, 62). Thus, they would marry Mexicans (Leonard, 63). Marriages with Black women were discouraged in Punjabi communities, as they did not want to ally themselves with people who were hated by the Whites (Leonard, 69). It was quite common for people of different religious backgrounds to marry. There are many recorded instances of Sikhs and Muslims getting married (Leonard, 68). Thus, one can assume that the issue of caste was not as important as it was in the subcontinent.
It was important for colonial regimes to enforce marital norms, in order to differentiate non-White people, such as Indians, freed slaves, and polygamous Mormons (perceived as non-white), from the White majority (Shah, 117). It was also seen as a way of recognizing people who were depicted as a threat to Western civilization (Shah, 119). Finally, it allowed the government to regulate relations of the people under its rule (Shah, 118). Ultimately, it was a way of imposing authority. There were instances of non-normative marital relationships. An example of this is presented in the story of two women claiming to be married to a man who had passed away. One of them was from New Mexico, and the other was from India (Shah, 120). Using ‘‘expert knowledge’’, the attorneys of Soledad Garcia Jubala, the wife from New Mexico, claimed that Hindu marriage was immoral and uncivilized. Thus, the man’s marriage with his Indian wife was to be seen as illegitimate, meaning that Soledad Garcia Jubala was his ‘‘true’’ wife (Shah, 121). Similarly, while defending Don Sing in a case of sodomy, P.L. Verma claimed that sodomy was a terrible sin according to Hindu morals. Thus, no good Hindu would commit such a sin (Shah, 127). Using this ‘‘knowledge’’ allowed her to win the case, meaning Don Sing was acquitted. Verma also attracted compassion and sympathy by presenting his wife as hopeless and miserable in relation to the whole situation (Shah, 128). By claiming to know Indian culture and the Hindu religion, lawyers were able to win court cases for or against Indians.