Diouf, Ibn Said, GhaneaBassiri
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When it comes to the enslavement of African American Muslims, Diouf highlights some major differences and disparities between perceptions of the Christian slaveholders and the enslaved people themselves. There was obvious resistance among those enslaved Muslims who would not accept missionary and owners’ forced conversion attempts, which they would interpret as “stupidity” or ignorance. However, Diouf is able to highlight that this supposed stupidity was not a lack of understanding but rather a lack of desire to convert and abandon their religion. Despite the horrid conditions and oppression these enslaved Muslims faced, turning away from their faith was not an option, but that was not the case for all.
The difference in perception extends into the difference in techniques when approaching slaves regarding conversion — sincere conversations versus forced conversations. However, even those forced into conversion often did so purely to survive. This is an example of the Shi’i taqiyya concept discussed in the last discussion post’s readings. Regardless, an example where forced conversion took place was in Brazil, where, following independence, Catholicism was declared the national religion, which was followed by the abolishment of all slave religions. They went so far as to fine owners of slaves for every non-Christian they owned. This highlights that the problem was not just oppression stemming from slave owners but rather a larger societal disapproval that enticed said owners to ensure all of their slaves were “good Christians.” However, what becomes important in this context is the taqiyya or pseudoconversion, more specifically, where slaves choose to portray themselves as Christians externally while secretly holding onto their Islamic values and beliefs. This, similar to previous discussions, was another example of self-preservation done in order to save themselves from preservation. However, that does not mean that their pseudoconversions went unnoticed. In a letter from the French minister to Brazil, he wrote:
“Most of the Minas, if not all, are outwardly Christians, but they are actually Muslims, but as this religion would not be tolerated in Brazil, they hide this fact, and most are baptized, with names borrowed from the calendar. Notwithstanding outward appearances, I have been able to ascertain that they faithfully cherish the beliefs they bring with them from Africa and zealously hand them on, since they study Arabic thoroughly enough to understand the Koran, at least roughly.”
While this shows that their tactic was not necessarily working as planned, it was still difficult to determine whose conversion was false and who was honest. Diouf goes on to mention many cases of “questionable conversions” of slaves who typically “reverted” to Islam, never having truly left it. Instead of leaving Islam, they would adapt their beliefs and practices to please the onlookers, displaying just a surface-level commitment while maintaining their true religion behind the scenes. There are reports of these reversions, however, I believe it can be safe to assume many more are left unaccounted for.
Diouf goes on to mention some of Islam’s five pillars and how these affected those slaves enduring hardship. The most difficult, perhaps, was the obligation of 5 prayers a day. With slaves not being able to play openly, many made adjustments and cut down on the required amount or had to let go altogether, maintaining their spirituality in other ways. However, it is also relevant to recognize the experience of those like Ayuba Suleyman Diallo, who, on account of his supposed noble lineage, maintained a certain level of fame, and his owner allowed him a dedicated prayer space. While most slaves did not share this privilege, there were varying levels of religious freedom. Many of these Muslims, despite being enslaved, still found ways to commit and fulfill their zakah to one another, even if the object of the matter was not necessarily monetary.
The autobiography of Omar Ibn Said is an intriguing one, as he became a slave in America, yet was educated in Islamic theology and law, setting him apart from the less literate slaves. While his story accounts for his conversion to Christianity, there is a lot of debate online regarding the true nature of his conversion. Throughout the reading, he readily refers to the Koran, his loss of language, and his God; however, he also refers to Christianity, which makes it difficult to assess. Given the religious situation at that time, I would presume that his conversion was more of a survival strategy than an honest one, as his writing makes it seem like he is still holding onto that part of his life.
GhaneaBassiri covers more of the social dynamics that became relevant for those who were enslaved. The major divide in this scenario was regarding religion, and the actions of the slaves amplified it. Those African Muslim slaves often distanced themselves from the other Africans, considered to be superior when it came to intelligence, as they were often able to read and write Arabic. This superiority created unwanted divisions among the slaves who were already oppressed. This showed up in the form of social mobility, where those such as Diallo (mentioned earlier) could receive benefits such as their own prayer space.
Additionally, other Muslim slaves would be treated with more respect, given their literacy and perceived nobility. While this allowed for social mobility within the demographic of slaves, they were still fenced in by the broader enslavement. Beyond negotiating for better treatment, religion also played a pivotal role as a source of strength and spirituality.